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The mass-to-charge ratio ( m / Q) is a physical quantity relating the mass (quantity of matter) and the electric charge of a given particle, expressed in units of kilograms per coulomb (kg/C). It is most widely used in the electrodynamics of charged particles, e.g. in electron optics and ion optics .
M squared. In laser science, the parameter M2, also known as the beam propagation ratio or beam quality factor is a measure of laser beam quality. It represents the degree of variation of a beam from an ideal Gaussian beam. [ 1] It is calculated from the ratio of the beam parameter product (BPP) of the beam to that of a Gaussian beam with the ...
The rms charge radius is a measure of the size of an atomic nucleus, particularly the proton distribution. The proton radius is about one femtometre = 10−15 metre. It can be measured by the scattering of electrons by the nucleus. Relative changes in the mean squared nuclear charge distribution can be precisely measured with atomic spectroscopy .
[74] [75] American physical chemists Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman used two variations of the formula in 1909: m = E / c 2 and m 0 = E 0 / c 2 , with E being the relativistic energy (the energy of an object when the object is moving), E 0 is the rest energy (the energy when not moving), m is the relativistic mass (the ...
The law was first [1] formulated by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1773, [2] followed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, [3] both in the context of the attraction of ellipsoids. It is one of Maxwell's equations, which forms the basis of classical electrodynamics. [note 1] Gauss's law can be used to derive Coulomb's law, [4] and vice versa.
In number theory, Büchi's problem, also known as the n squares' problem, is an open problem named after the Swiss mathematician Julius Richard Büchi. It asks whether there is a positive integer M such that every sequence of M or more integer squares, whose second difference is constant and equal to 2, is necessarily a sequence of squares of ...
Negative refraction. Negative refraction is the electromagnetic phenomenon where light rays become refracted at an interface that is opposite to their more commonly observed positive refractive properties. Negative refraction can be obtained by using a metamaterial which has been designed to achieve a negative value for (electric) permittivity ...
Rydberg constant. In spectroscopy, the Rydberg constant, symbol for heavy atoms or for hydrogen, named after the Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg, is a physical constant relating to the electromagnetic spectra of an atom. The constant first arose as an empirical fitting parameter in the Rydberg formula for the hydrogen spectral series, but ...